Whole life paper. Electricl engineer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Whole life paper. Electricl engineer - Essay Example Having been good in mathematics and physics at A levels greatly generated my interest in electrical engineering and I made my final decision in becoming an electrical engineer in future. I used to spend most of time in the laboratory trying to connect circuits and learning more about electronics. As I was in high school we came across this challenging situation with my fellow students. While doing our practical assignment in one our physics laboratory class it happened that the systems stopped working despite the fact that the electric bulbs were still on. No one could figure out what was happening and our assignment was almost due in time and neither the teacher nor the technician could be reached. With my interest and passion in electricity I decided to handle the assess the situation with an intention of resolving the problem. I noted that the fuse had blown off and managed to replace it with a spare. Since then I realized that I had the capacity to handle electronics and also rea lized my positive attitude toward the subject. Working with electrons has been wonderful in my education as have always wondered how electronic engineers have changed these positron antiparticles to transform diverse fields such as robotics, acoustics and medicine, as stated by Cheng (67). These phenomenal developments by the electrical engineers have helped me understand my passion in engineering as well as increased my ambition to join them in changing lives. In addition, the values I learnt from m father who was also an electrical engineer have helped me greatly. For instance, through his dedication to the job, enjoyment and positive attitude towards it helped grow my passion in this career. My undoubted experience during high school, university and during internships has helped understand better my passion for engineering. Nevertheless, my unquestionable courage to handle challenges while at school has increased my understanding of the passion I have in this career. Being hardwo rking and daring in facing challenges is part of my strengths which have influenced my understanding of the passion I have in the field. Being an optimistic, hardworking and goal driven individual clearly sets out my experience, values and strengths in engineering different from that of others. For instance, I used to company my dad to his working cites since I was young and from him I learnt a lot about this field. Similarly, having been the best student in physics in high school my tutors sometimes would give me a contract to work for them and this increased my experience. My teamwork values as well as my innovative skills also set me different from other people in this field. For instance, during my education I liked working with groups because I knew my skills and knowledge would help others in my filed. Similarly, my strengths in facing challenges without fear also makes me different from others given the fact that electricity is very dangerous when improperly handled (Moaveni and Sharma, 121) Impact Some of my goals include the following: To reduce environmental pollution by 30 percent in the next five years to come: I will ensure this by coming up with a model that reduces the amount of heat released to the atmosphere by the use of electricity. To raise the living standards of the communities living in the rural areas. I hope to achieve this by designing equipment that are portable, more energy efficient and use solar. To contribute in the improvement of healthcare. I hope to achieve this by innovatively designing better electronic machines which can detect people’s heath problems in the shortest time possible. Emerging Global,

Organization Structure Essay Example for Free

Organization Structure Essay Tips: Or you can approach this way: 1. Briefly introduce the various organizational theories. 2. Mention that you will focus analysing two theories, where examples of principle and practice can be found from the case study, for the purpose of this task. Analyse how organizational theory underpins principles and practice of organizing and management. a. Briefly introduce the various organizational theories (Scientific management, classical administration and etc) b. Analyse in details the various organizational theories in terms of its principles and practice. ( Analysis: 1.Explain what they are, 2.describe their characteristics and under what circumstances each of them may be useful and 3.evaluate their strengths and weaknesses) c. Relate these theories, where appropriate and applicable, to the case study. d. Draw a short conclusion Tips: Or you can approach this way: 1. Briefly introduce the various organizational theories. 2. Mention that you will focus analysing two theories, where examples of principle and practice can be found from the case study, for the purpose of this task.1. Draw the organizational structures for both firms You should be able to see the differences of the two organizational structures: Tall and short hierarchical structure, narrow and wide span of management, specialization by geographic or functions or something else. These diagrams serve as the basis for you to do the following compare and contrast. 2. Compare and contrast the differences of organizational structures between the firms Based on the above diagrams, do the compare and contrast. Compare and contrast means you need to find out: * What are the things similar between the two companies? * What are the differences between the two companies? Sample answer for 2 a. Organizational structure Given the diagram, it is clear that both companies have a formal organizational structure. There are however differences between the two companies. First, Boss Ltd is taller than Agar in organizational hierarchy. (Plagarism is a serious offence. This content can be found at http://btechnd.blogpot.com/) This is due to the structure necessarily to support Boss Ltd’s geographical and product divisions that accommodate 400 more staff than Agar Ltd(Plagarism is a serious offence. This content can be found at http://btechnd.blogpot.com) . In contrast, Agar has a layer reporting hierarchy. Its line of command is shorter than that of Boss Ltd. Second, the span of management, in the case of Boss Ltd, is narrower than that of Agar. That being the case, a stronger degree of decentralised decision making is practised in Boss. Agar’s decision making mainly centralized to the CEO himself.

Novelty Preferences in Infants: Effects on Infant Cognition

Novelty Preferences in Infants: Effects on Infant Cognition Discuss the method of ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ and consider its contribution to psychologists’ understanding of infant cognition. One of the keystones in an infant’s development is the ability to group similar items and experiences together. This, on the surface, may seem a trivial skill but it forms the basis for much of the infant’s cognitive development in the first months of life. Once similar things are identified into groups, structure and order can form around them. This process is referred to as ‘categorisation’. In fact, the development of the process itself provides a useful insight into the developmental progression of an infant more generally. One of the major tools psychologists have used to study this phenomenon is that of the ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ technique: Fantz (1963) noted that infants showed a strong tendency to pay attention to novel objects, compared with those they had previously encountered. If an infant is presented with an object for an extended period of time, that infant will gradually reduce the attention it bestows upon the object. The baby will begin to look away, until eventually it no longer pays the object attention at all. This process is known as familiarisation (or ‘habituation’). Subsequently, if the infant is presented with the same object as before, alongside a new object (with which the infant has had no previous experience), then vastly more attention will be paid to the novel item. This is called ‘novelty preference’. Presumably this pairing of phenomena (familiarisation and novelty preference) comes about from a biological tendency (genetically hard-wired) which ensures an infant experiences as much of its environment as possible, in order to learn at an optimum rate. Psychologists have produced a lab-based version of the ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ phenomenon in order to examine its effect on the cognitive development of infants. The technique has two stages: In stage 1 an infant is shown a number of different objects belonging to the same category (e.g. Siamese cat, Persian cat, Tabby cat). In the second stage the infant is presented with a pair of novel stimuli. One of the stimuli belongs to the category the baby has just encountered (e.g. Manx cat), the other belongs to an entirely new category (e.g. Labrador dog). The infant is then graded on the preference they pay to each stimulus. The infant normally shows a greater preference for the stimulus from the novel category. This is because they have formed a representation of the familiar exposed category (i.e. cats) which became habituated, so more examples of this category will hold less attention. When a new category is encountered (i.e. dogs) more attention is due to th is novel item since it has not been seen before. This process is used to examine many aspects of infant development which relate to categorisation, for example: how do infants form categories? How are these categories remembered? How are they organised? Also, since categorisation and language formation are so strongly linked the ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ technique is used to understand the development of language in infants. In order to examine this process simply some of the first studies of infant cognition resorted to using very basic stimuli. Younger and Gotlieb (1988, see also Bomba and Siqueland, 1983; Quinn, 1987) used simple dot patterns, known to be effective in examining adult categorisation. Infants were familiarised with six pairs of distorted dot patterns, which had been derived from a single (undistorted) prototype (and hence were considered to belong to the same category). The infants were then shown a test pair which included the prototype of the exposed category, and a prototype of an entirely different dot category. The amount of time the infants spent looking at the novel dot pattern was recorded. When the prototypes were very simple patterns the infants (aged 3-7 months) spent a significantly larger amount of time observing the novel prototype than the familiar one. This indicated that they had all formed a representation of the dot category, without ever seeing the pattern which defi ned the category (the prototype). As the prototype patterns became more complex only older infants (5 months and above) showed this significant trend. So, older infants appeared to be better at forming a prototype from the series of distorted examples, although all showed evidence of category formation. Younger and Gotlieb (1988) went on to use this finding to examine how infants actually store their category representations. They hypothesised two possibilities for category storage: 1. all possible exemplars are stored in memory and are available for comparison with new instances (‘exemplar memory’); 2. an average of all observed exemplars is stored as a prototype (‘prototype memory’). Initially it would seem plausible that prototype memory is the more likely as this is the most efficient form of storage and retrieval. Comparing an example with all previous examples would be very time-consuming. Once another cohort of Younger and Gotlieb’s (1988) infants had been exposed to the distorted dot pattern exemplars (see above) they were then shown the prototype paired with one of the previously seen distorted exemplars. If the infant produced a prototype when it was exposed to the exemplars earlier (by averaging the features of the distorted patterns) then the prototype the infant formed should look much like the actual prototype. In this case the infant should perceive the distorted pattern as less familiar (and thus attended to for more time) than the prototype. If the infant was in fact just remembering each and every pattern it was presented with then the distorted exemplar should be more familiar (and attended to less) than the prototype, which was not seen until this point. However, it seems that infants use both of these category storage mechanisms, depending on the exact parameters of the experiment (i.e. if there are a few simple exemplars then it is more efficient to encode each one, when there are many complex exemplars a prototype is more appropriate). More importantly, infants use the same mechanism as adults performing the equivalent test. This not only indicates that infants are able to form prototypes (an essential mechanism for category formation), but are capable of adult-like cognitive tasks from a very early age (ED209, Child Development Course Team, 2008). Experiments like those described above have been criticised for their lack of environmental validity. In order to address whether or not infants can actually categorise items that are relevant to their surroundings a number of authors have used the ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ technique. Quinn, Eimas and Rosenkrantz (1993, see also Eimas and Quinn, 1994; Quinn and Eimas, 1996) gave infants exposure to pictures of domestic cats from different breeds and in different orientations. Subsequently, the infants spent less time viewing novel cat pictures (as they considered them familiar) than pictures of animals from other species (which belonged to novel categories). These experiments show that infant categorisation is reproducible outside of the ‘lab’. Moreover, the experiments indicate that infants can produce categories that are both environmentally valid and useful, without the assistance of a vocabulary. Knowing that similar things go together is the first stepping stone to producing useful categorical knowledge. The next step than an infant makes is to organise their categories into hierarchical structures. This step brings the child closer to forming a strong basis for a lexical framework (i.e. towards speech). To illustrate: A Siamese cat belongs to the super-ordinate category of ‘cats’, which in turn are ‘animals’. Construction of this categorical framework is commonly investigated using the ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ technique: Behl-Chadha (1996) set out to discover if infants were truly able to form hierarchical structure. Infants aged between 3 and 4 months were familiarised with a set of twelve photos of chairs (which included sub-ordinate categories like desk chairs and rocking chairs etc.). Following this the infants were shown pictures of novel chairs along with other items of furniture. This infant paid more attention to the novel items than the chair-related items. This standard ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ effect showed that the babies had successfully formed the category ‘chair’. However, when the infants were familiarised with a set of ‘couch’ pictures they subsequently treated new ‘couch’ pictures as familiar, but pictures of other chair-types were treated as novel, attracting more attention (indicating the babies knew couches were an individual category, whilst at the same time knowing that chairs were a category also). This experiment proved that infants are in fact able to ‘nest’ categorical information into a hierarchical structure, needed for the formation of a vocabulary. Another aspect of categorical grouping that is a pre-requisite of early speech formation is that of spatial relation. This form of categorisation is more abstract than the types summarised above as it cannot rely on perceptual features. Quinn (1994, see also Quinn et al., 2003) showed that infants can categorise abstract spatial relations, grouping objects that are ‘above’ or ‘below’. If an infant was familiarised with stimuli that were all of the same spatial relation they would subsequently show preference for stimuli in another spatial relation. These kinds of experiment show that infants produce seemingly complicated categorical information without the a priori powers of speech and vocabulary. Infants therefore have the cognitive ability to form many complex representations of their environment. In fact, many authors believe this forms the basis for communication and language development. Waxman and Markow (1995) suggest that language acquisition is promoted due to the ability it provides the infant in referring to objects. In fact the onset of speech and the so-called ‘vocabulary spurt’ have both been attributed to categorisation. Gopnik and Meltzoff (1992), for example, note that children who are better at categorisation on the ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ test are those who also use more words and names for items in their first months of speech production. Goldfield and Reznick (1990), note that half of all early words spoken by infants were object names, further strengthening the link between object category and cognitive development, and language in particular. The ‘familiarisation/novelty preference’ method is therefore key in understanding the building-blocks of infant cognition and speech. Bibliography Bomba, P. C. and Siqueland, E. R. (1983) ‘The nature and structure of infant form categories’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 35, pp. 294–328. ED209 Course Team (2008). Cognitive and Language Development in Children, Milton Keynes: The Open University. Eimas, P. D. and Quinn, P. C. (1994) ‘Studies on the formation of perceptually based basic-level categories in young infants’, Child Development, vol. 65, pp. 903–17. Fantz, R. L. (1963) ‘Pattern vision in newborn infants’, Science, vol. 140, pp. 296–7. Gopnik, A. and Meltzoff, A. N. (1992) ‘Categorization and naming: basic-level sorting in eighteen-month-olds and its relation to language’, Child Development, vol. 63, pp. 1091–103. Quinn, P. C. (1987) ‘The categorical representation of visual pattern information by young infants’, Cognition, vol. 27, pp. 145–79. Quinn, P. C. (1994) ‘The categorization of above and below spatial relations by young infants’, Child Development, vol. 65, pp. 58–69. Quinn, P. C. and Eimas, P. D. (1996) ‘Perceptual organization and categorization in young infants’, Advances in Infancy Research, vol. 10, pp. 1–36. Quinn, P. C., Eimas, P. D. and Rosenkrantz, S. L. (1993) ‘Evidence for representations of perceptually similar natural categories by 3-month-old and 4-month-old infants’, Perception, vol. 22, pp. 463–75. Quinn, P. C., Adams, A., Kennedy, E. et al. (2003) ‘Development of an abstract category representation for the spatial relation ‘‘between’’ in 6-to 10-month-old infants’, Developmental Psychology, vol. 39, pp. 151–63. Younger, B. A. and Gotlieb, S. (1988) ‘Development of categorization skills: changes in the nature or structure of infant form categories?’, Developmental Psychology, vol. 24, pp. 611–19. Waxman, S. R. and Markow, D. B. (1995) ‘Words as invitations to form categories: evidence from 12-to 13-month-old infants’, Cognitive Psychology, vol. 29, pp. 257–302.

Schizophrenia Essay examples -- Psychology Psychiatry Disorders Essays

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a metal illness which is characterized by a disruption in cognition and emotion that affects the most fundamental human attributes, such as thought, perception, language, and the sense of self. There are a large number of symptoms of schizophrenia which can include hearing internal voices, hallucinations, and delusions. No single symptom can diagnose a person as schizophrenic, but rather the collection of multiple symptoms which persist for a prolonged period of time. Symptoms of schizophrenia are divided into two categories, positive and negative. These categories define how the symptoms are defined and treated. Positive symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized behavior, disorganized speech and thinking, difficulty to be goal oriented, the schizophrenic is unpredictable, silly, or exhibits behaviors that are bizarre to onlookers. Other positive symptoms include catatonic behaviors, which would be a decrease in reaction to the current environment. Positive symptoms, which do not occur very often, are unusual motor behavior, derealization, depersonalization and somatic preoccupations. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia include affective flattening, which is a reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expressions, Alogia categorized by a lessening of speech fluency and productivity, and Avolition, which is the reduction, or difficulty to initiate and persist in goal directed behavior. Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness, and although there is no known cure there are several drugs that can be administered to those suffering from the illness to reduce the severity of the symptoms, or to hopefully get rid of all of the s... ...perdal. (2003). Retrieved February 19, 2005, from http://www.drugresourcecenter.com/risperdal/risperdal.htm Jannsen.com, . Risperdal. (2005, January 12). Retrieved February 17, 2005, from http://www.risperdal.com/html/ris/consumer/pd_risperidone.xml?article =safety.jspf Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Retrieved February 19, 2005, from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec4.html #table4_7 NAMI-NYS. Retrieved February 19, 2005, from http://www.naminys.org/abmed_ris.htm National Institute of Neorlogical disorders and Stroke, . NINDS Tardive Dyskinesia Information Page. (2005, February 09). Retrieved February 19, 2005, from http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/tardive/tardive.htm PSY web Mental Health. Retrieved February 19, 2005, from http://www.psyweb.com/Drughtm/risper.html

Allport’s Motivation, Functional Autonomy and Study of the Individual Essay

VI. Motivation To Allport, an adequate theory of motivation must consider the notion that motives change as people mature and also that people are motivated by present drives and wants. Allport believed that most people are motivated by present drives rather than by past events and are aware of what they are doing and have some understanding of why they are doing it. A. Reactive and Proactive Theories of Motivation Adult behavior is both reactive and proactive, and an adequate theory of motivation must be able to explain both. An adequate theory of personality, Allport contended ,must allow for proactive behavior. It must view people as consciously acting on their environment in a manner that it permits growth toward psychological health. A comprehensive theory must not only include an explanation of reactive theories, but must also those proactive theories that stress change and growth. In other words, Allport argued for a psychology that, on one hand, studies behavioral patterns and general laws (the subject matter of traditional psychology) and on the other hand, growth and individuality. Allport insisted that a useful theory of personality rests on the assumption that people not only react to their environment but also shape their environment and cause it to react to them. He criticized psychoanalysis and animal-based learning theories as being reactive because they saw people as being motivated by needs to reduce tension and to react to their environment. Personality is a growing system, allowing new elements to constantly enter into and change the person. B. Functional Autonomy Allport’s most distinctive and controversial concept is his theory of functional autonomy, it is Allport’s explanation for the myriad human motives that seemingly are not accounted for by hedonistic or drive reduction principles, which holds that some (but not all) human motives are functionally independent from the original motive responsible for a particular behavior. Motives that are not functionally autonomous include those that are responsible for reflex actions, basic drives, and pathological behaviors. If a motive is functionally autonomous, it is the explanation for behavior, and one need not to look beyond it for hidden or primary causes. Functional autonomy represents a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the capstone of Allport’s idea on motivation. 1. Perseverative Functional Autonomy Allport recognized two levels of functional autonomy. Perseverative functional autonomy is the tendency of certain basic behaviors to continue in the absence of reinforcement. Allport borrowed the word â€Å"perseveration† which is the tendency of an impression to leave an influence on subsequent experiences. Perseverative functional autonomy is found in animals as well as humans and is based on simple neurological principles. Addictive behaviors are examples of perseverative functional autonomy. 2. Propriate Functional Autonomy The other level is propriate functional autonomy; it is the master system of motivation that confers unity on personality, which refers to self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium. Examples of propriate functionally autonomous behaviors include pursuing interests that one holds dear and important. 3. Criterion for Functional Autonomy Present motives are functionally autonomous to the extent that they seek new goals. That is, functionally autonomous behaviors will continue even after the motivation behind those behaviors change. 4. Processes That Are Not Functionally Autonomous Allport listed eight processes that are not functionally autonomous: (1) Biological drives, (eating, breathing and sleeping) (2) Motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives, (3) Reflexes actions (eye blink) (4) Constitutional equipment (physique, intelligence, and temperament) (5) Habits in the process of being formed,   (6) Patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement, (7) Sublimations that are linked to unpleasant childhood experiences, and (8) Certain neurotic or pathological symptoms. Allport suggested a criterion for differentiating between a functionally autonomous compulsion and one that is not. For example, compulsions that can be eliminated through therapy or behavior modification are not functionally autonomous, whereas those that are extremely resistant to therapy are self- sustaining and thus functionally autonomous. C. Conscious and Unconscious Motivation Although Allport emphasized conscious motivation more than any other personality theorist, he did not completely overlook the possible influence of unconscious motives. Pathological behaviors are often motivated by unconscious drives, but healthy individuals are ordinarily consciously in control of their behavior. VIII. The Study of the Individual Because psychology has historically dealt with general laws and characteristics that people have in common, Allport strongly felt that psychology should develop and use research methods that study the individual rather than groups. To balance the predominant normative or group approach, he suggested that psychologists employ methods that study the motivational and stylistic behaviors of one person. A. Morphogenic Science Allport distinguished between two scientific approaches; Traditional psychology relies on nomothetic science, which seeks general laws from a study of groups of people, and idiographic which refers to that which is peculiar to the single case or study patterns of traits within the single case, but Allport used morphogenic procedures because the term â€Å"idiographic† was so often misused, misunderstood and misspelled. Morphogenic procedures refer to patterned properties of the whole organism and allows for intraperson comparisons Allport accepted self-reports, such as diaries, at face value. B. The Diaries of Marion Taylor During the late 1930’s, Allport and his wife became acquainted with personal documents, including diaries, of a woman they called Marion Taylor. Although the Allports analyzed much of this information, they never published an account of Marion Taylor’s story. Their work with Marion Taylor probably helped them organize and publish a second case- the story of Jenny Gove Masterson, another pseudonym. C. Letters from Jenny A short time later, the Allports analyzed and published a series of letters they had received from an older women named Jenny. These letters constitute Allport’s best-known example of morphogenic science in that they reveal one person’s pattern of behavior. Two of Allport’s students, Alfred Baldwin and Jeffrey Paige, used a personal structure analysis and factor analysis, respectively, whereas Allport used a commonsense approach to discern Jenny’s personality structure as revealed by her letters. All three approaches yielded similar results, suggesting that morphogenic studies may be reliable. IX. Related Research Allport believed that a deep religious commitment was a mark of a mature person, but he also saw that many regular churchgoers did not have a mature religious orientation and were capable of deep racial and social prejudice. In other words, he saw a curvilinear relationship between church attendance and prejudice. A. The Religious Orientation Scale This insight led Allport to develop and use the Religious Orientation Scale to assess both an intrinsic orientation and an extrinsic orientation toward religion. Allport and Ross (1967) found that people with an extrinsic orientation toward religion tend to be quite prejudiced, whereas those with an intrinsic orientation tend to be low on racial and social prejudice. A review of later studies (Trimble, 1997) found that prejudice is positively related to an extrinsic religious orientation but unrelated to an intrinsic religious orientation. INTRINSIC RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION – refers to motivation arising from goals set forth by the religious tradition itself, and is assumed to have an â€Å"otherly,† nonmundane, even self- denying quality: religion is regarded as a master motive whereas other needs, strong as they may be, are regarded as of less ultimate significance. EXTRINSIC RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION – refers to a flagrantly utilitarian motivation underlying religious behaviors: the individual endorses religious beliefs and attitudes or engages in religious acts only to the extent that they might aid in achieving mundane goals such as feeling comforted and protected or acquiring social status and approval. B. Religious Orientation and Psychological Health Research by Ralph Hood (1970) and others (Hansen, Vandenberg, & Patterson, 1995; Kosek, 1999; Maltby, 1999) has found that people who score high on the Intrinsic scale of the ROS tend to have overall better personal functioning than those who score high on the Extrinsic scale. In general, these studies have found that some highly religious people have strong psychological health, whereas others suffer from a variety of psychological disorders. The principal difference between the two groups is one of intrinsic or extrinsic religious orientation; that is, people with an intrinsic orientation tend to be psychologically healthy, but those with an extrinsic orientation suffer from poor psychological health.

Animal Euthanasia in Zoos

Animal Euthanasia in Zoos While zoos in the United States favor contraception as a means of keeping their resident populations under control, other zoos around the world take a different approach: euthanasia. Dave Morgan, chairman of the Population Management Committee at the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums explained to the New York Times that international guidelines on the ethics of breeding zoo animals are sketchy. Apparently, since ethics and philosophies are so diverse among countries of the world, its tough to make blanket regulations. For instance, both the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria and the African Association of Zoos and Aquaria generally consider routine euthanasia a viable management and breeding strategy, while the Central Zoo Authority of India has recommended that euthanasia of zoo animals may be carried out only in the specific circumstances when any animal is in such an agony or pain that it is cruel to keep him alive. How Euthanasia Is Used for Population Control Zoos that favor euthanasia over contraception generally allow animals to mate naturally and permit mothers to raise their young until an age at which the family groups would instinctively separate in the wild. At that point, zoo officials employ lethal injection to kill young animals that exceed the zoos carrying capacity, dont fit into breeding plans, and are unwanted by other zoos. In the spring of 2012, the Copenhagen Zoo euthanized a pair of leopard cubs who were approaching two years of age as part of their breeding management plan. Each year, the zoo puts approximately 25 healthy animals to death, including chimpanzees, whose similarities to humans make opponents of euthanasia particularly squeamish. Arguments in Favor of Euthanasia Contraception (pills, implants, injections) can pose health risks to animals.Euthanasia allows animals the natural experience of bearing young and parenting.Terry Maple, the former director of Zoo Atlanta and co-editor of Ethics on the Ark, knows of no definitive research that assesses the importance of raising young to animals health, but he has said that observation indicates that most zoo animals are motivated and protective parents that play frequently with offspring.Euthanasia imitates animals survival in the wild, where high percentages of young die early in life as a result of predation, starvation or injury.According to longtime zookeeper and curator Peter Dickinson, There is nothing wrong in killing an animal if it is done quickly and with forethought and kindness. When animals are euthanized for the correct reasons, then it is morally right and justified. The uninformed will often level accusations of being heartless and not caring when precisely the opposite is true. Good zoos with managed populations can see the bigger picture †¦ it is the species which is being managed and not individuals. Arguments Against Euthanasia Opponents of euthanasia suspect that the killing of adolescent animals is a convenient way for zoos to maintain a continual supply of their cutest inhabitants (babies), which draw crowds and generate more money.Contraception is a more humane way to limit populations while allowing animal family groups to coexist naturally.Cheryl Asa, director of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums Wildlife Contraception Center at the St. Louis Zoo, does not believe that euthanasia is a feasible option for zoos in the United States. On an emotional level, I cant imagine doing it, and I cant imagine our culture accepting it, she said.Worldwide breeding networks and genetic planning can be used to avoid a surplus of offspring while still ensuring that many animals breed and raise offspring, claims Terry Maple, former director of Zoo Atlanta and co-editor of Ethics on the Ark. I am not saying management euthanasia is wrong. It is just not the best solution.Killing animals in zoos because they dont figu re into breeding plans is not euthanasia, its zoothanasia, and is a most disturbing and inhumane practice. Using the word euthanasia seems to sanitize the killing at least for some people and makes it more acceptable. While one might argue that many, if not all, animals in zoos suffer, killing animals who arent needed isnt mercy killing; its really a form of premeditated killing, argues Marc Bekoff, Professor Emeritus of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Colorado, Boulder.

Free Essays on “Between A Rock And A Soft Place”

Although we live in the twenty-first century, has the debate about stereotyping men and women come to an end? In the essay â€Å"Between a Rock and a Soft Place† the author categorizes genders, male and female. More so the author tries to describe the hardship that men had to go through and may even still being going through, as well as woman during the feminist action movement. Before I read this essay, I never stopped for a moment to think about the difficulties men had to go through while woman were trying to establish equality. Looking back during the Victorian times, men had to be masculine bread winners and woman were looked upon as angelic procreating machines which took care of the offspring and their husbands. Well, at the time men didn’t know any better nor did the woman. Boys were raised into making themselves macho men, and girls were raised to believe that they had to be gentle creatures to nurture and obey their husbands and raise children. As a matter of fact, I don’t think it should have been any different for that time and age. Because I believe if the feminist action started any earlier, by now our men would have become woman except with male genitals. Although I am a fellow female, I believe woman are over doing and over powering men to such an extent that they have turned men into complete sissies. Besides adding un-needed burden to their shoulders. Please don’t misunderstand, I do believe in equal opportunities, but there is a biological reason to why there are two genders existing in this world. For instance, the biological make up of a man produces more testosterone, than in woman, thus makes the man masculine by nature. Feminist action has giving woman enough recognition for their equal capabilities, but why can’t woman understand that there are certain things that should be left for a man to do, and at the same time certain things woman should be doing. It doesn’t mean that we are weaker and not ... Free Essays on â€Å"Between A Rock And A Soft Place† Free Essays on â€Å"Between A Rock And A Soft Place† Although we live in the twenty-first century, has the debate about stereotyping men and women come to an end? In the essay â€Å"Between a Rock and a Soft Place† the author categorizes genders, male and female. More so the author tries to describe the hardship that men had to go through and may even still being going through, as well as woman during the feminist action movement. Before I read this essay, I never stopped for a moment to think about the difficulties men had to go through while woman were trying to establish equality. Looking back during the Victorian times, men had to be masculine bread winners and woman were looked upon as angelic procreating machines which took care of the offspring and their husbands. Well, at the time men didn’t know any better nor did the woman. Boys were raised into making themselves macho men, and girls were raised to believe that they had to be gentle creatures to nurture and obey their husbands and raise children. As a matter of fact, I don’t think it should have been any different for that time and age. Because I believe if the feminist action started any earlier, by now our men would have become woman except with male genitals. Although I am a fellow female, I believe woman are over doing and over powering men to such an extent that they have turned men into complete sissies. Besides adding un-needed burden to their shoulders. Please don’t misunderstand, I do believe in equal opportunities, but there is a biological reason to why there are two genders existing in this world. For instance, the biological make up of a man produces more testosterone, than in woman, thus makes the man masculine by nature. Feminist action has giving woman enough recognition for their equal capabilities, but why can’t woman understand that there are certain things that should be left for a man to do, and at the same time certain things woman should be doing. It doesn’t mean that we are weaker and not ...

Brandt Wallace essays

Brandt Wallace essays Is language, or the actual act of speaking, solely created by the organs of speech? It is possible that some scholars might agree that communication is not totally vocal, yet how many of these same scholars would agree that language is not restricted to the vocalized speech that is so common in everyday life? This paper will argue that music, specifically instrumental jazz, can be characterized as an alternative language method. In order to gather information to write this paper, research was conducted at a downtown bar by observing a four piece jazz band and its audience. On first observing with the notion of "jazz as language" in mind, one very important question arose-what types of things does language convey? Frankly, the answer to this question could continue into book length, but there are several key correlations that the research revealed between the functions of jazz and verbal speaking as language types. The most obvious similarity is that jazz, like verbal speaking, is used to explain ideas and stories in great detail and emotion. Jazz expresses these ideas and stories to the audience through two distinct entities, group conversation and personal interpretation. On explaining these entities, one must understand the order in which they are given to the audience. The majority of the pieces that were performed used a common theme or melody, some songs having multiple melodies. In each song, this melody was expressed in one of two ways. In some songs, the band would start with the melody and then enter a "solo period," where each musician would solo. Before concluding the piece, the band would tie the piece together by playing the melody again. In other songs, the band would switch between melody and solo until each musician had soloed. The melody will be referred to as the "conversation." The solo is like an individual's personal thoughts on the conversation. In the jazz melody, or con...

Starbucks is the world's premier coffee roaster and retailer Essay

Starbucks is the world's premier coffee roaster and retailer - Essay Example Aside that, Starbucks is a major corporate entity that seeks to maintain a strong grip through vertical integration. Starbucks maintains a strong hold on the coffee-related products and goods in America and around the world. Starbucks has acquired several processing plants and manufacturing entities that supply other corporate bodies with coffee and snack products which helps to boost the brand image. Stakeholders are the major entities who affect and are affected by the activities of an organisation (Freeman, 2004). In the case of Starbucks, the main stakeholders are employees, customers, the community, coffee producers and shareholders. In the mission statement of Starbucks, it seeks to satisfy the needs and aspirations of all these groups of stakeholders. The mission of Starbucks promises to provide a great work environment for the employees of Starbucks where diversity and excellence are at the core of their vision. They also seek to provide absolute customer satisfaction through excellent products. Also, Starbucks seeks to give back to the community and provide good arrangements and agreements with the coffee producers in different parts of the world. On the side of the shareholders, Starbucks seeks to provide the highest possible profits year-in-year-out for them. Starbucks' core strategy is 'to build a company with a soul'. This means it desires to set up a socially responsive organisation that seeks to provide the best results for all classes of stakeholders. It focuses on common values, common purpose and respect of people as well as shared success to create a bond between employees, suppliers, shareholders and management. Starbucks has different types of outlets found in several forms and systems thorough which they serve world class premium coffee. The growth of the Starbucks brand is an important element of the strategy. So Starbucks continues to provide high quality services and create a conducive atmosphere for coffee lovers. It embarked on an exp ansion drive in the 1990s by selling in top restaurants and hotels. It also entered joint ventures and strategic alliances with food manufacturers and CD manufacturers to create a unique brand that could be used to sell products around the world. Starbucks also expanded into other markets through strategic acquisition drives. They continue to spread their coffee brands through licensing and international expansion. However, Starbucks is going through some strategic challenges. The focus on the US markets seem to be proving less profitable due to the recent financial crises. Starbucks is therefore focusing on expanding to other foreign markets. They also seek to diversify and continue the vertical integration drive which seeks to acquire different business concerns related to the coffee industry. External Analysis External analyses refers to the points or situations where an organisation's activities interacts with the elements in the wider society; naming governmental, international , macroeconomic and socio-cultural and technological trends relevant (Scott, 2009). Political The years 2007 – 2009 were tough times for the United States in general. The War in Iraq and the global financial crises created a strong impact on the nation as a whole. The US Congress passed 3 stimulus bills in the period (The New York Times, 2012). These bills were meant to provide recovery to the financial system. It provided tax cuts as well as an unemployment fund to support

Death of a Salesman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Death of a Salesman - Essay Example Relatively associated to the life and dream of every American family, Death of a Salesman tells about the anxiety and insecurity of the Lomans–with Willy as the father, Linda as the wife and the mother to two sons: Biff and Happy. Already suffering from senility, Willy is still made to suffer more from his unappreciative boss, Howard Wagner. Willy has managed to survive, eventhough he erred at times while driving or even doing simple tasks. This is due to his concern for his financial security that remained him a salesman travelling long distances just to make a sale, and earn only a commission from it. Lomans are not mired in abject poverty–they were able to mortgage the house in a decent and highly densed neighborhood and were able to drive their own car–Willy Loman found it difficult to meet both ends. Linda is a plain housewife; Happy is living his own life; and Biff was not able to finish high school on reasons Willy has to be partly blamed. The struggle is nerve-racking to the extent that he is often disgusted and complaining at his own self and the people around him. Slowly, the plot brings us to reality, and it reveals the more elaborate struggle Willy has stepped onto. First, Willy’s late brother Ben has intevened exclusively only to Willy’s mind. This is either a flashback or some literary device which Miller had utilized to induce an intrinsic conflict in the main character. In the initial dialogue between Willy and Ben, they exchanged pleasantries and they shared memories about their parents and even their whereabouts. Willy is interested to the latter’s prevarications, â€Å"to walk into the jungle† (Miller 36). To Willy, the philosophy–apparently the same philosophy of the Loman’s stock–should be imbued to his two young sons. Further in the play, one notices the intricacies in the past. Ben, in the past, has

To what extent can improvements in productive flow and product quality Essay - 4

To what extent can improvements in productive flow and product quality lead to an increase in sales and profit - Essay Example product flow and quality, and determine how their association can be harnessed to promote sales as well as profits. Business organisations exist with a goal of maintaining continuous improvement and productivity; a goal that can only be achieved if high sales and profits are maintained. Enhanced sales and profits provide adequate opportunities and resources to the manufacturers that they apply for innovation and growth. Enhanced innovation enables manufacturers to provide superior and lean quality products that attract customers. Most companies strive to leverage operational improvements into strategies that transform the company (Williams, Haslam and Williams, 1992). Production flow defines the concept of mass production. It is the idea of producing large quantities that are manufactured through application of high standardised methods. Production flow is applied by many companies because it promotes the production process; it is easier and quicker. The introduction bit of the proce ss is cumbersome and difficult although it becomes easier once the production flow attains momentum. Owing to its emphasis on production of large quantities of commodities, production flow relies on the machinery for most of its roles. This implies that surmountable resources require to be allocated in the purchase, training and maintenance for the strategy to be efficient. Machines involved in this process should be selected and handled carefully to ensure that they are not vulnerable to wear and tear. This may lead to loss in terms of maintenance and replacement costs (Womack, Jones and Roos, 1990). According to Oulton (1987), mass production has its merits as well as demerits. Installation of the machinery required for production requires abundant financial resources. However, once the machinery has been installed, organisations save considerable financial resources, especially the money required in hiring and maintenance of human labour (Gilchrist, 1971). The work output is norm ally high. The accuracy levels are also high provided the machines are maintained in a superb working form. Machines are also capable of abiding to the set deadlines with no requirement for extensions. Abiding to the performance deadline is enhanced by the presence of assembly lines that allows continuous and consistent flow of manufactured products. This enhances output as well as the quality of the products produced in the long term, leading to increased sales and profits. Investing in production flow process benefits the manufacturer due to improved sales, leading to the increase in profits. Quality can be defined as the ability of a product or service to fulfil the client needs or expectations. Therefore, it can be measured depending on the level that the quality of a product satisfies the expectations of a consumer. High quality products have superior features that satisfy the consumer needs while the features of low quality products do not correspond to the needs of the consum er. For instance, the features that determine the quality of mechanical products include appearance, safety and reliability. Product quality improvement should consider the customer’s needs and expectations, extent of fulfilment of both national and international regulations and the competitiveness of the product (Williams, Haslam and Williams, 1993). Improving the product quality will not only satisfy the consumer needs; more customers will be attracted leading to increa To what extent can improvements in productive flow and product quality Essay - 1 To what extent can improvements in productive flow and product quality lead to an increase in sales and profit - Essay Example Additionally, there is product price, product quality, customer preference, and economic stability of a market. Product quality and productive flow are also factors that affect sales and profit. They have various ways through which they affect sales and profit (Shaharudin, Mansor, Hassan, Omar & Harun, 2011, p. 8163; Shetty & Buehler, 1991, p. 8). The extent, through which product quality and productive flow can increase sales and profit, can only be shown through explaining the effect of these two factors on sales and profit. How improving these factors can lead to increased sales and profit, will clearly be produced in the explanations given about their effects. The essay is, therefore, divided into two main sections: The effects of product quality on sales and profit, and the effect of productive flow on sales and profit. These will show the relationship between product quality and productive flow to sales and profit hence; help in understanding how improving the two factors can l ead to increased sales and profit. Effect of Product Quality on Sales and Profit The main element that brings value to a customer in the market offering is the product. A product is more than a tangible object. It includes performance quality, service features, brand name, design and packaging. The quality of a product is very important since it affects the product performance and so is connected to customer satisfaction and value (Shaharudin, Mansor, Hassan, Omar & Harun, 2011, p. 8164). Consumers of today seek high quality products. The only problem is different perceptions held by customers about quality. Any company interested in selling its products should conduct thorough market research, depending on the type of product they have, to determine what their consumers perceive as high quality. Consumers in the United States, for example, rank quality based on reliability of a product, durability, easy maintenance, ease of use, brand name and the price. This is specifically on mot or cycle products (Shaharudin, Mansor, Hassan, Omar & Harun, 2011, p. 8164). Improving the quality of a product, therefore, increases the sales of a product. Sales depend on customer satisfaction and value, and product quality is one way of satisfying the customer and offering something of value depending on the customer. The extent to which product quality affects sales is great. This is because, for goods to be sold, customers have to want, need or prefer them. Preference is most common where there are a variety of products with different features, prices, brand names, quality and so on. Product quality is a determining factor in preference for a product, so affects sales. Customer satisfaction and value is vast. There are different customers with different tastes, needs, and economic capability. All these determine the preference hence the intent to purchase a product (Shaharudin, Mansor, Hassan, Omar & Harun, 2011, p. 8164). Product quality is the totality of a product or servic e characteristics that give the product or service the ability to satisfy given needs. If a product fulfils a customer’s expectations, the customer becomes satisfied and begins to build loyalty. Loyalty is developed through trust and positive relationship with the customer. Customer loyalty retains customers and contributes to the number of sales made in a given period of time. This clearly indicates one of the various ways through which product qua

Watsons Theory of Caring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Watsons Theory of Caring - Essay Example The fact is that when there is a sharp rise in the workload and expectations, nurses are prone to lose the caring practice they are supposed to preserve. Here, the knowledge in Jean Watson’s Caring Theory can be a useful asset to any practicing nurse. This work intends to look into the tenets of Jean Watson Caring Theory, and, at the same, I reflect on my own practice as a Registered Nurse at a long term acute facility. Dr. Jean Watson is a distinguished nursing professor form Virginia. With a PhD in educational psychology, she has received many national and international awards. The very basic elements of Jean Watson’s Caring Theory are three in numbers. According to Watson (1988), they are the carative factors, the transpersonal caring relationship, and the caring moment. The Carative Factors According to the work named ‘the theory of human caring: retrospective and prospective’ published in Nursing Science Quarterly in the year 1997 by Watson (1997), car ative factors should be considered as the guidelines towards the very basis of nursing. According to the scholar, the traditional medicine considers curative factors as the main function of nursing, and hence, she developed the term ‘carative’ factors to point out that the core of nursing is not in cure; but in care. As the scholar points out in the work, there are ten important aspects of carative factors. The very first element is humanistic and selfless system of value. It is followed by, and linked to, other aspects like faith, sensitivity to the feelings of others, showing a helping nature, showing positive feelings, showing problem-solving mentality, the tendency to teach and learn, creating an atmosphere of mental, physical, and spiritual well-being, and finally, ensuring proper assistance to human needs. The term altruism, in nursing, can be termed as taking such decisions that are in the best interest of the patient. Admittedly, with more and more modern techno logies at hand, nurses are made to take such ethical decisions that are a matter of life and death. Here, it becomes necessary for a nurse to take such decisions that respect the patient. Here, I am forced to look back into my own practice as a nurse and the instances where I got stuck in ethical dilemmas. Two years ago, I had a patient who was, in fact, a Jehovah’s Witness. It was rather necessary for him to receive blood products from others to sustain his life, but his religious beliefs did not allow him to do so. Being the person responsible to do the same, I was in a dilemma; either I could force the patient to accept the treatment, or accept his suggestion. Here, I had to report the same back to the Ethics Committee of the setting to reach a decision. There I understood the fact that in order to be altruistic, one needs to respect the cultural and personal beliefs of the patient. However, a thorough scrutiny proves that there are more important things at play here. To i llustrate, the family of a patient who is on life-sustaining treatments for no apparent benefit may be too confused and reluctant to take the decision to remove the same. In one such instance, I managed to convince the family of the patient that the ethics committee of the setting would help them to reach a decision that would be in the best interest of the patient. When the ethics committee came up with the decision to stop the life-sustaining treatment, the family was willing to cooperate as they were convinced that the decision was in their best interest. As one goes ahead, one can see that the term ‘carative’ was replaced by, or evolved into, another term ‘caritas’ as Watson modified her theory; and according to the scholar (as

Development in the Management of Human Resources Assignment

Development in the Management of Human Resources - Assignment Example These include employees who collectively contribute to achieving business objectives. It deals with employing people, utilizing, developing capabilities as well as compensating their services in relation to the organizational requirements. The need to produce work based on knowledge and acknowledging that workers are key to a maintaining competitive advantage has improved new HRM initiatives. This study tries to analyze the major problems facing the Play Smart Toy Company and thereafter examines HRM policies and practices to be employed by the company to increase its productivity and growth. In reference to the above case study, there are various human resources problems identified. Â  Ken Williams with the help of a small management team decided to develop a line of specialty toys that made a big impact in the market. The company grew in production and gained a big market share in Melbourne, Sydney, and Canberra and later into the Chinese market. As demand increased the company employed more staff and the business went from a small operation to a much larger concern by employing a lasting production staff. Despite healthy sales figures profits in 2007 and the first part of 2008 dropped significantly. The then accountant explained to Williams that this fall had been brought about by the increase in costs, for example, the rising labor costs. Apart from the increase in costs, there were other issues of concern. Â  First was the efficiency problem with the production staff. It had been discovered that the staff were just moving about and not doing their duties as per the rules and when the demand was high most of them were stressed and this led to a decrease in production.

Medical Coder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Medical Coder - Research Paper Example They are like a very essential part of the health care industry and without them the industry cannot operate proficiently. What medical coders do is, whenever a patient receives any service from the physicians, the health care centre that has provided the facility to the patient needs to document the facility or service that they had provided to that particular patient. Then these medical coders receive the documented papers and extract the relevant information from it. Then they need to assign a particular CPT code for every type of medical facility provided. Then these bills are further being preceded by the patient’s medical insurance provider. Approximately, for all these health care facilities provided, there are more than 9000 CPT codes that are assigned. And not only this, the number of ICD codes is over 13500. Whereas, CPT stands for Current procedural terminology and ICD stands for International Classification of Diseases. ICD codes are assigned for the medical diagnosis. The medical coders generate reports after assigning the codes to inpatient and outpatients. The reports are useful for the management purpose in the hospitals, as well as the information is also used compensating the health care providers. These coders are hired by the hospitals themselves. The history of medical coders dates back to 1347 at the time of Black Death. At that time Sicily was facing the bubonic plague that had even reached to London causing deaths of almost 70,000 citizens of London by 1348 (Taylor, 2009). The plague was not ended at that time, it continued for almost 3 more centuries. At that time there was a London publication that used to publish the number of fatalities caused by this plague on weekly basis. The city government of London then used to trace the disease throughout the city. This is actually the earliest form of medical coding and classification of

Watsons Theory of Caring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Watsons Theory of Caring - Essay Example The fact is that when there is a sharp rise in the workload and expectations, nurses are prone to lose the caring practice they are supposed to preserve. Here, the knowledge in Jean Watson’s Caring Theory can be a useful asset to any practicing nurse. This work intends to look into the tenets of Jean Watson Caring Theory, and, at the same, I reflect on my own practice as a Registered Nurse at a long term acute facility. Dr. Jean Watson is a distinguished nursing professor form Virginia. With a PhD in educational psychology, she has received many national and international awards. The very basic elements of Jean Watson’s Caring Theory are three in numbers. According to Watson (1988), they are the carative factors, the transpersonal caring relationship, and the caring moment. The Carative Factors According to the work named ‘the theory of human caring: retrospective and prospective’ published in Nursing Science Quarterly in the year 1997 by Watson (1997), car ative factors should be considered as the guidelines towards the very basis of nursing. According to the scholar, the traditional medicine considers curative factors as the main function of nursing, and hence, she developed the term ‘carative’ factors to point out that the core of nursing is not in cure; but in care. As the scholar points out in the work, there are ten important aspects of carative factors. The very first element is humanistic and selfless system of value. It is followed by, and linked to, other aspects like faith, sensitivity to the feelings of others, showing a helping nature, showing positive feelings, showing problem-solving mentality, the tendency to teach and learn, creating an atmosphere of mental, physical, and spiritual well-being, and finally, ensuring proper assistance to human needs. The term altruism, in nursing, can be termed as taking such decisions that are in the best interest of the patient. Admittedly, with more and more modern techno logies at hand, nurses are made to take such ethical decisions that are a matter of life and death. Here, it becomes necessary for a nurse to take such decisions that respect the patient. Here, I am forced to look back into my own practice as a nurse and the instances where I got stuck in ethical dilemmas. Two years ago, I had a patient who was, in fact, a Jehovah’s Witness. It was rather necessary for him to receive blood products from others to sustain his life, but his religious beliefs did not allow him to do so. Being the person responsible to do the same, I was in a dilemma; either I could force the patient to accept the treatment, or accept his suggestion. Here, I had to report the same back to the Ethics Committee of the setting to reach a decision. There I understood the fact that in order to be altruistic, one needs to respect the cultural and personal beliefs of the patient. However, a thorough scrutiny proves that there are more important things at play here. To i llustrate, the family of a patient who is on life-sustaining treatments for no apparent benefit may be too confused and reluctant to take the decision to remove the same. In one such instance, I managed to convince the family of the patient that the ethics committee of the setting would help them to reach a decision that would be in the best interest of the patient. When the ethics committee came up with the decision to stop the life-sustaining treatment, the family was willing to cooperate as they were convinced that the decision was in their best interest. As one goes ahead, one can see that the term ‘carative’ was replaced by, or evolved into, another term ‘caritas’ as Watson modified her theory; and according to the scholar (as

Medical Coder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Medical Coder - Research Paper Example They are like a very essential part of the health care industry and without them the industry cannot operate proficiently. What medical coders do is, whenever a patient receives any service from the physicians, the health care centre that has provided the facility to the patient needs to document the facility or service that they had provided to that particular patient. Then these medical coders receive the documented papers and extract the relevant information from it. Then they need to assign a particular CPT code for every type of medical facility provided. Then these bills are further being preceded by the patient’s medical insurance provider. Approximately, for all these health care facilities provided, there are more than 9000 CPT codes that are assigned. And not only this, the number of ICD codes is over 13500. Whereas, CPT stands for Current procedural terminology and ICD stands for International Classification of Diseases. ICD codes are assigned for the medical diagnosis. The medical coders generate reports after assigning the codes to inpatient and outpatients. The reports are useful for the management purpose in the hospitals, as well as the information is also used compensating the health care providers. These coders are hired by the hospitals themselves. The history of medical coders dates back to 1347 at the time of Black Death. At that time Sicily was facing the bubonic plague that had even reached to London causing deaths of almost 70,000 citizens of London by 1348 (Taylor, 2009). The plague was not ended at that time, it continued for almost 3 more centuries. At that time there was a London publication that used to publish the number of fatalities caused by this plague on weekly basis. The city government of London then used to trace the disease throughout the city. This is actually the earliest form of medical coding and classification of

Aspects Of Contract Essay Example for Free

Aspects Of Contract Essay Task: 1.1: Explain the importance of the essential elements required for the information of a valid contract? Offer A valid offer identifies the bargained-for exchange between the parties and creates a power of acceptance in the party to whom the offer is made. The communication by one party known as the offeror to the another party called the offeree b) Acceptance To constitute a contract, there must be an acceptance of the offer as noted above. Until the offer is accepted, both parties have not assented to the terms and, therefore, there is no mutual assent. Offeree in a manner invited or required by the offer. Whether an offer has been accepted is a question of fact. The effect of acceptance is to convert the offer into a binding contract. To form a contract it is necessary that there is a party capable of contracting and a party capable of being contracted with on the other side. In other words, to enter into a valid, legal agreement, the parties must have the capacity to do so. Consideration No contract will exist without sufficient consideration due to agreement with the other two party has agree with the term and condition as well. Mutual Assent There must be mutual assent or a meeting of the minds on all negotiated terms between the parties and on all the essential elements in terms of the contract to form a binding contract. Intention to create legal relation In some jurisdictions, the parties must also have a present intent to be bound by their agreements. It is not necessary that the assent of both parties be given at the same time. Also, it is not necessary that communication of the assent be simultaneous. Task 1.2: Discuss the impact of different types of contract? A bilateral contract is an agreement between at least two people or groups. A bilateral contract is enforceable from the get-go; both parties are bound the promise. For example, one person agrees to wash the other’s car in return for having his/her lawn mowed. Acceptance of the offer must be communicated for an agreement to be established. A unilateral contract is one where a party promises to perform some action in return for a specific act by another party, although that other party is not promising to take any action. Acceptance may take effect through conduct and need not be communicated Task 1.3: Analyse terms in contracts with reference to their meaning and effect? Terms of contract set out duties of each party under that agreement. Generally, the terms of a contract may be either: Wholly oral, wholly written and partly oral and partly written. Terms are to be distinguished from statements made prior to the contract being made. Express terms When a contract is put down in writing, any statement appearing in that written agreement will usually be regarded as a term, and any prior oral statement that is not repeated in the written agreement will usually be regarded as a representation, due to the assumption Implied term These are terms that courts assume both parties would have intended to include in the contract had they thought about the issue. They are implied on a â€Å"one-off† basis. Two overlapping tests have been trade used to ascertain parties’ intention. Business efficacy test: terms must be implied to make contract work. There are terms which the law will require to be present in certain types of contracts (i.e. not just on â€Å"one-off† basis and sometimes irrespective of the wishes of the parties). Task 2.1: Apply the elements of contract in given business scenarios? Offer can be seen from the case when Tam’s college offers admission to it student who under take s the vocational qualification. Acceptance can also be seen from the student when they agree to bound by the school regulations. Consideration is when the student promise to act in certain way. This is particularly important where the agreement involves a promise to act in a particular way in the future. Task 2.2: Apply the on terms in different contracts? Conditions These are the most important terms of contract. Serious consequences if breeched. Innocent party can treat contract as repudiated (and thus is freed from rendering further performance of contract) and can sue for damages. Description in contract of term as â€Å"condition† is not necessarily determinative of question whether term is condition. Courts tend to search for evidence that parties really intended term to be such. Task 2.3: Evaluate the effect of different terms in given contract? Conditions are so important that without them one or other of the parties would not enter into the contract. Consequently, to make a condition  falsely, or to breach a condition, is viewed so seriously that the wronged party will be entitled to treat the contract as void, voidable or at least rescinded. Where the term is a warranty, the wronged party will only be able to seek monetary damages for any loss suffered. Task 3.1: Contract liability in tort with contractual liability? The non-breaching party has a duty to mitigate damages. If it does not do so, its damages will be reduced by the amount that might have been avoided by mitigation. In employment contracts, the employee is under a duty to use reasonable diligence to find a like position. Liquidated Damages A liquidated damages provision will be valid if (i) damages (ii) the amount agreed upon was a reasonable forecast of compensatory damages. If these requirements are met, the plaintiff will receive the liquidated damages amount even though no actual money damages have been suffered. If the liquidated damages amount is unreasonable, the courts will construe this as a penalty and will not enforce the provision. Task 3.2: Explain the nature of liability in negligence? The primary function of the Law of Torts is to provide remedies to claimants who have suffered harm, loss, or an infringement of rights. The harm includes physical injury to persons or property, damage to persons’ reputations or financial interests, and interference with persons’ use and enjoyment of their land. However, just suffering such a loss does not necessarily mean the law will provide a remedy; a claimant must show that the person committing the tort owed them a duty of care and that the tort caused the loss. Task 3.3: Explain how a business can be vicariously liable? The company is liable when the manager is under the control of the employer that the employer tell the employee how to the work and when to the work. the work that the employee does forms part of the general business of the organisation. There is a contract of service between the organisation and the employee. Daniels v Whetstone Entertainments Ltd [1962] A nightclub bouncer forcibly ejected Mr Daniels from the premises following a disturbance. Once outside, the bouncer assaulted him. Task 4.1: Apply the element of the tort of negligence and defences in different business situations? Negligence is an important tort that covers a wide range of situations where persons negligently cause harm to others. In order to succeed in an action for negligence, it is necessary for a claimant to establish the following three elements: 1. The defendant owed the claimant a duty of care. 2. The defendant breached that duty of care. 3. Reasonably foreseeable damage was caused by the breach of duty. Task 4.2: Apply the elements of vicarious liability in given business situations? Employers are vicariously liable for Employee acts authorized by the employer Unauthorized acts so connected with authorized acts that they may be regarded as modes (albeit improper modes) of doing an authorized act. There is normally rarely an issue as to whether a given act falls within the first category The difficult cases involve assessing the connection between the act and the employee’s employment. Bazley established that the connection between the employment and the tort contemplated in the second branch of the Salmond test had itself to be addressed in two steps: The Court must first examine â€Å"whether there are precedents which unambiguously determine on which side of the line between vicarious liability and no liability the case falls.† If the prior case law does not clearly suggest a solution, then the Court is to resolve the question of vicarious liability based on a policy analysis directed at ascertaining whether the employer’s conduct created or enhanced the risk that the tort would occur. Task 4.3: Discuss three methods you can use to apply elements of tort properly in a work a place? CONTROL One of the traditional explanations of vicarious liability is that the employer should be vicariously liable since the employer controls the activities of her employees. The relationship between the parties As duties in tort are fixed by law, the parties may well have had no contact before the tort is committed. Unliquidated damages The aim of tort damages is to restore the claimant, in so far as money can do so, to his or her pre-incident position, and this purpose underlies the assessment of damages. Tort compensates both for tangible losses and for factors which are enormously difficult to quantify, such as loss of amenity and pain and suffering, nervous shock, and other intangible losses.. LIST REFERENCE Atiyah P S — Introduction to the Law of Contract (Clarendon Press, June 1995) ISBN: Beale/Bishop and Furmston — Contract — Cases and Materials (Butterworth, October 2001) Cheshire/Fifoot and Furmston — Law of Contract (Butterworth, October 2001) ISBN: Cooke J — Law of Tort (Prentice Hall, May 1997) ISBN: 0273627104

Approaches To Hr By Multinational Corporations Management Essay

Approaches To Hr By Multinational Corporations Management Essay For better understanding this is important to discuss what a multinational company is in first place. In short words multinational company can be defined as a company or an organization that serves or produce in more than one country is known as multinational company. Other names use for such kind of organizations is Multinational Corporation (MNC), Transnational Corporation (TNC) or Multinational Enterprise (MNE). Multinational organization can be engaged in manufacturing, services or the exploitation of natural resources in the operating countries. Different writers described different definition of multinational companies. According to Moore Lewis (1999, P. 21) stated that an enterprise that engages in foreign direct investment (FDI) and own or controls value adding activities in more than one country is known as multinational enterprise. As Jones (1996, p.4) says An MNE is usually defined as firm that controls operations or income generating assets in more than one country. The re is a long list of multinational firms like Sony, Nestle, Wal-Mart Stores, General Motors, Ford Motor, ConocoPhillips Microsoft, Nokia, Toyota Motors, Intel, Coco-Cola, Sony, IBM, Nike and Citigroup etc. Now the main question is about the multinational companies of different origin adopt different approaches of HRM practices. To discuss this section this is really important to discuss the HRM practices in first place, to define what HRM is and then its practices will be discussed throughout this essay step by step, and then practices of HRM in broader context for the MNCs or MNEs. HRM is modern word use in the businesses, which can be defined as a model of personnel management that focuses on the individual rather than taking collective approach. (www.dictionary.bnet.com). As Pennington Edwards (2000, P. 4) stated that Human Resource Management (HRM) is a new way of thinking about how people should be managed as employees in the workplace. It can be classified into two schools of thoughts.i.e. Hard HRM Soft HRM. Both types of HRM are under studies of different authors in detail. Now to concentrate on the question directly a survey is going to be under studies Country of origin effects and HRM in multinational companies which took place in 2007 by P. Edwards et al. In which he discussed 302 UK based multinational companies, which cover both UK owned and overseas owned companies. This study will play an important part in the essay to get the conclusion either multinational companies of different nationalities have different HRM approaches and practices or not. 2- Challenges in multinationals According to Brett, Jeanne Kristin, 2006, international businesss nature is going under a sea change. The globalisation, multi-nationalisation, and the geographical diversification is pushing companies towards change in their management structure and style. Multinationals now need to consider regional market conditions and develop strategies to cater to each of the regional markets. 2.1- Culture shock Culture shock is the big challenge for multinationals, the difference brings the different thinking ways and working ways, and it needs time to adjust it. In most cases the expatriate manager prefer to emphasize and require the home office or home country values on the host countrys employees instead of accepting and learning within the new culture. (Adler, 2002) 2.2- Lack of cross cultural training In fact, most multinationals ignore this training program during the staffing management. However, the better understanding about culture block can help managers to improve the effectiveness of staffing management. For example, The managers at Bell Canada were totally asked be training about Muslim laws of drinking and the treating of women there before he or she assigned a project for Saudi Arabia such like constructing the telephone system in there. (Adler, 2002) 2.3- Family problems Family problem for PNC manager is another challenge. The overseas employees always think of their family. Sometime, such emotion will effect the concentrations in their work. These difficulties are usually underestimated. What the organization should do is to assist expatriates family to adapt their new environment. (Dolan, 1996) 3- HRM Functions in MNCs Team members of multinational companies come from different countries with the different culture, economic, religions and habits. All of these differences bring the different thinking and working methods, thus, how to manage the multicultural team is a big challenge for the HRM in the multinationals. In the article Managing multicultural team, the author states that Communication in Western cultures is typically direct and explicit. In many other cultures, meaning is embedded in the way the message is presented. The differences can cause serious damage to team relationships (Jeanne Breeet , Kristin Behfar, and Mary C. Kern, 2007) . 3.1 Retaining subsidiary staffs retention It can be argued that the retention of staffing in the multinationals subsidiary conducts huge influence. The transfers between the PCNs, HCNs and the TCNs are the big issues in the staffing management strategy. Scolders identify that the HCNs and TCNs who are sent to the corporate headquarters (HQ) called inpatriates. As this article mentioned before, the ethnocentric approach, the polycentric approach, the regioncentric approach, and the geocentric approach are the four major nationality staffing policies in the international staffing, by analyzing the complex and the new situation appear in the relationships between the HQ and subsidiary, B. Sebastian Reiche (2007) explores the international stiffing-related retention strategies . Firstly, he claims that a pluralistic and consensus-driven approach to international staffing enhances the retention capacity of international staffing practices through increased responsiveness to and involvement of the respective local unit. He states that the knowledge and skill from the local staff can help multinationals to reduce the risk and culture-bound in the local market. He also believes that this approach can improve the loyalty of local staffs, and the local staff can achieve individual career plan to cohere the institutional development plan. At the same time, he states that the PCNs still act as the vital role for informal controlling and coordination in the multinational companies. Secondly, he indicates that expatriation of local staff can help to retain the MNCss retention. In this approach, he states that the inpatriates can share their social and contextual knowledge of the subsidiary environment with managers at the HQ. And also inpatriates tend to be accepted by HCNs more willingly than foreign personnel. HRM is all concern about the employees at the work place, but the demands from HRM gone up as the education rate grown up. As Pennington and Edwards (2004, P.4) stated that As a level of education become higher, a greater proportion of the population world wide expect more than fair treatment, they seek a range of intrinsic rewards such as job satisfaction, a degree of challenge, a sense of career progression and satisfying relation with co workers. 3.2 Selection Recruiting:- The main function of HRM is selecting and recruiting, no matter the firm is domestic or multinational. Staffing issue for domestic managers and MNCs managers are not very different for recruiting for the middle management or ground floor workers, but for selecting and recruiting of top management then the choices come like parent country national (PCNs), Host country national (HCNs) or third country national (TCNs). According to Parlmutter (1989) divided into three main categories. Ethnocentric where top management favours PCNs managers, who are posted abroad for a period of time. Polycentric where top management give choice to subsidies to fulfil management posts themselves, and Geocentric when top management recruits managers globally and post them anywhere in the world. For example Japanese style of HRM dont rely on interviews and job advertisements, they select the people from the universities and the most top MNCs can afford the students from the most prestigious university. According to Keeley (2001, P.62) stated that unlike the most Western companies detailed job description rarely exist. The company seeks to determine if the prospective employee has the type of personality that fits in well with the atmosphere at the company.While US MNCs rely on interview must attribute of HRM practices in their subsidies. In China, they had no selection processes per se when they first started. Senior managers were appointed by community government-officials. Most of the new hires were based on employee referrals. Selection criteria were based on nepotism and contacts. Hiring decisions are influenced by the following in china: 1. A persons ability to perform the technical requirements of the job 2. A personal interview 3. A persons ability to get along well with others already working here 4. Having the right connections (e.g. school, family, friends, region, government, etc.) 5. The companys belief that the person will stay with the company 6. An employment test in which the Person needs to demonstrate their Skills 7. Proven work experience in a similar job 8. A persons potential to do a good job, even if the person is not that good when they first start 9. How well the person will fit in the companys values and ways of doing things 10. Future co-workers opinions about whether the person should be hired (Huczynski, Andrzej / Buchanan, David, 2001) A most important attribute in Japanese style of HRM is called Shushinkoyo which means life or long term employment. This is considered the success key of Japanese HRM as stated by Keeley (2001, P.65) Nevertheless, a number of scholars both Japanese and non Japanese have praised Shushinkoyo and have attributed the success of Japanese enterprises to its practice. Here this shows that multinational companies from Japan apply different approach for selection the new recruits while US MNCs rely on a different phenomena of selection and recruitment. 3.3 Performance Appraisal:- This is the HR attribute which has significant attention from both academics and practitioners, the appraisal system in US MNCs use to reduce the labour force as stated in Edwards (2007, P. 40) that some US companies, GE for instance, have become known for using the appraisal system to remove the lower- performing employees from the workforce on a regular basis and /or to identify those in need of remedial action for their performance level. But in Japanese MNCs the companies gives the life time or long term employment as mentioned by Keeley (2001) that it is one of the best attribute of Japanese HRM in small Japanese enterprises or Japanese MNCs. Differences can b seen in the Edwards (2007) survey of Japanese and US multinational companies based in UK, where he stated that US companies are more likely to emphasise the importance of behaviour in relation to corporate values, while Japanese firms give lower importance rating to quantitative or qualitative individual evolution criteria , and criteria based on corporate values. In large organizations the performance review on periodic basis, this is second task of organizations HR departments, after hiring an employee and on the basis of performance employee get bonuses, promotions and rewards. Performance appraisals give opportunity to the workers (individual/group) to get prepare for the future goals of firm. 3.4 Pay, Compensations, Rewards Benefits:- Compensations like hourly wages and annual salaries while benefits are like life insurance, pensions and sick pays etc. According to Cherrington (1995) stated that compensation should be legal and ethical, adequate, motivate and fair, and should be able to give employment security to the worker. Pay compensation and rewards are not really different from each other, but in simple words rewards is the term use to motivate and to get the future goals by means of workforce for an organization, the reward system plays an important role, by reward (individual/group) the workers get appreciation and get themselves more committed to the firm. These are the some of the main features and functions of any (domestic/MNCs) firm HR department. In Japanese style of HRM they use a Japanese term Nenko Joretsu which means seniority system, where in Japanese HR management the wages goes up with the age and experience, as stated in Keeley (2001, P. 76) said that though nenko is most often translated as seniority'. While US and Europe MNCs apply the performance related pay system. This is the most important phenomena of MNCs HR system when they go to borderless business. According to Edwards (2007, P. 46) stated in his survey that Nationality has some effects. For example, American firms are likely to give organisational performance a higher importance rating for the KEY GROUP than others firms. UK firms are more likely emphasis individual output measures for LARGEST OCCUPATIONAL GROUP. It shows the difference in attribute of HR practices and approaches in multinational firms. 3.5 Training Development:- This is one of the important as well as crucial task for HR department for a firm operating globally, in this area of HRM multinational companies of different origin follow different approaches, for example according to Tung (1981) stated that by comparing US, European and Japanese corporations, Americans firms it seems tend to underestimate the importance of training, whereas most European and Japanese organizations see this as a highly important area of attention. The objectives and goals of training and development are to make sure the skilled and willing workers are available in the organization. Training and development are important to create a smarter working environment. In China, medium and large companies have formal training programmer and many have established special facilities for teaming purposes. Because of the lower educational level in the rural areas, the quality of the rural labour force is significantly in urban areas. Experienced, well-qualified staffs are in short supply. To disadvantage of hiring Key personnel from a shallow pool of talent, they invest heavily in training. Training is an important investment in human capital. Training improves an individuals performance and increase organizational effectiveness. (Ahlstrom Garry, 2001) Japanese MNCs pay less attention to training and development attribute of HRM, the reason might be the less mobility of workers in the Japanese firms, as they use the term Shushinkoyo. According to Keeley (2001, P. 88) stated that A study of the Japan Productivity Centre found differences in the attitudes towards training in Japanese and American firms. Where Keeley stated that from the study and respond of both countries towards training issue were positive but American firms were strong and more positive then the Japanese firms and he also stated that Japanese firms arrange training on request basis. A strategy which makes a firm successful is not easy to implement when they go beyond the borders, because of the barriers which might be language, religion, culture and legislations etc. As Keeley (2007, P.89) stated that HR practices which makes a firm successful in domestic environment are difficult to implement in their overseas subsidiaries. 4- HRM Approach in Multinational Firms: Now in this essay some of the multinational firms characteristics will be studied to see do they get affected by the country where they belong to in their HR practices and approaches or not? There are many MNCs, the country which has most MNCs is USA, and after that are Europe, Japan and Germany. There are many writers who discussed the issue of ownership and HRM in MNCs like Evan, Lank and Farquhar (1977), Barlett Goshal (1989), Rozenzweig Nohria (1994) and Innes Morris (1995) etc, which prove that the issue of ownership has been in discussion from ages, as according to Economist (1995) said that the issue of ownership is central to the number of important policy related and academic debate in the area of HRM and IR, One line of argument is that, with increasing globalization MNCs are becoming stateless players, detached from individual nation states. MNCs of different origin work in the host country by applying its local mechanism of HR practices and approaches, because it is not possible to work and apply 100% approaches of the parent country, as according to Rozenzweig Nohria (1994) said that a rank and file IR issues are more likely to exhibit local isomorphism . There are many arguments about the affection of country of origin on MNCs HR practices, the reasons are many for MNCs to adopt different approaches of HRM, as Ferner (1997) described that in short, it is imperative to take into account the dynamic of nationality as a factor affecting the behaviour of MNCs. The modernization of political institutions, the rapid pace of technology, the internationalization of product itself and changing pattern of international market and competition, all are likely to modify to pre existing national structure although not necessarily in the direction of convergence of different national systems on a single model. Now the essay will point out some differences in Chinese and American Human Resource Managements. China is one of the fastest growing economy of the world, according to Zhu (2005, P.2) explained that the past two and half decades of reforms and impressive economic growth have witnessed an unprecedented enthusiasm for the establishment of foreign invested enterprises (FIEs). Many foreign companies have expended their operations into china, attracted mainly by the sheer size of its potential market. There are many multinational firms in China like Aluminium Corp (ACH), China Petroleum Chemical Corp (SNP) and China Unicom (CHU) etc. The main practice of HRM is selection and recruitment as mentioned above, and the difference between the process of selection of Chinese and USA approach is, in USA model of HRM job interview is essential for filling a major position, while in Chinese HRM mostly jobs are allocated by government and interview process is not common. In reward system the USA model of HRM offers a variety of incentives system, while Chinese HRM system is different from USA, in Chinese system salary ranges are narrow, group reward system is common, but the pay system is more motivate than American pay system. In performance appraisal USA model of HRM believes in two way communication, while in Chinese model supervisor have absolute power and authority to evaluate subordinates, in USA participative management is welcome and encourage, but in Chinese HRM collective leadership is common, and in major decision making, the involvement of workers is symbolic. The difference can be seen in different origin or nationality MNCs that the US MNCs are significantly more like to collect information on employee attitude bring together HR managers from different countries and use HR international shared services, Japanese organizations are less likely to collect data centrally, while French origin MNCs acting more likely in US style of HRM practices, and German origin MNCs firms follow Japanese style of HRM practices. (Jackson, 2002) The best example is British American Tobacco (BAT), which is operating in a number of countries in the world, i.e. Pakistan, South Africa, UK, Japan, Saudi Arabia and many more. As this is an American based firm, and American have an interview must attribute in their HR practices, they apply the same approach for selecting and recruiting in the host country Pakistan, and the adopt some practices of Pakistan HRM practices (host country) like monthly payment of salaries instead of weekly wages, so its means BAT reflected their parent country HRM practices in some ways and in subsidies like UK, BAT apply the same HR practices and approaches as the parent country have, because the culture difference is not very distinct from each other i.e. UK and USA. (www.bat.com) (self experience as a worker of BAT in Pak) 5- Conclusion This essay was carried out to see, do multinational organizations of different origin have different approaches to international human resource management? There were some evidences that showed the answer as Yes they get affected by its country of origin in on or other way, but it is also proved that the most of MNCs adopt the best fit policy when MNCs start operating in a host country, because of the obstacles in the host country, i.e. language, religion, norms and values, culture and legislations. Writers in HRM field have different opinion about the behaving of MNCs, so the best option for MNCs is to apply the best fit approaches of the HRM practices, means combination of both (Parent Host countries) HRM practices. The issue of ownership country of MNC has been in discussion for ages, but still there is not a 100% accurate answer came out as according to Ferner (1997) said that but existing research has failed to systematically explore differences. All these discussion and researchers efforts bring the conclusion that in some HR attributes in MNCs they follow the a universal approach while in some they follow the different approaches in HR practices, according to the survey by Edwards (2007) stated that throughout the report, we have noted the persistent influence of nationality. There are clear national differences in all four area of HR/ER: Pay performance, Learning development, employee involvement and employee representation. But the bottom line can be that: yes! Multinational firms of different origin can be effected by the parent country HR practices when the run business in other part of the world instead of the home country. There are some obstacles for multinational companies which can stop them to apply the 100% parent country HR practices in their subsidies like legislation of the host country, rules and regulation and more, there is term used in Edwards (2007, P.29) survey of Multinational companies in UK called discretion or local autonomy. Which shows multinational companies of different origin give the power of decision making and freedom to their subsidies? In that survey the high discretion power firms are Japanese, which means Japanese multinational companies give more freedom to their subsidies comparatively to American, French and other Multinational firms of different origin. But another thing can be the law enforcement of subsidies (host Country), the example can be Germany where the rules and regulation are strict so the difference in practices of HR of a multinational firm would not be as bigger as in Pakistan, because of the law enforcement, like differences would be less in Europe but it would be greater in Asia. Reference and Bibliography 1- Acuff, F. (1984) International and Domestic Human Resource Functions: Innovations in International Compensation. New York: Organization Resources Counsellors, pp. 3-5. 2- Bartlett, C., Goshal, S. (1989) Managing across Borders : The Transnational Solution, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. 3- Briscoe, R.D. Schuler, R.S (2004) International Human Resource Management; 2nd Ed, New York, Prentice Hall. 4- Cherrington, D, J. (1995) the management of human resources; Enkweed Cliff, NJ: Printice Hall. 5- Edwards, P. at al. 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